The establishment of a cement plant is a complex and strategically critical endeavor. The selection of the right site is crucial, as it can greatly impact the cement plant&#;s long-term success, operational efficiency, and environmental sustainability. We aim to provide a comprehensive guide to site selection for cement plants, taking into account the various factors that must be considered in this intricate process.
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One of the primary factors in site selection for a cement plant is the proximity to raw materials. The most essential raw materials for cement production are limestone, clay, shale, and silica. These materials must be easily accessible to the plant to minimize transportation costs. A site located near a quarry or ample deposits of these raw materials is ideal.
While proximity to raw materials is important, a well-developed transportation infrastructure is equally crucial. The site should have easy access to highways, railroads, and ports, which are essential for the efficient movement of raw materials in and finished products out of the cement plant. Adequate transportation infrastructure also reduces logistics costs and minimizes environmental impact.
Another critical consideration is the proximity to the market. A cement plant should be located reasonably close to its target market to reduce transportation costs and provide timely deliveries to customers. The site&#;s location should factor in both current and potential markets to ensure long-term sustainability.
Cement production is associated with environmental impacts, including emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants. It is essential to consider environmental regulations and restrictions when selecting a site. A site with the potential for implementing modern, environmentally friendly technologies and compliance with local and national regulations is favorable.
Cement production requires a significant amount of water for various processes. A reliable source of water, along with a sustainable water management plan, is vital for the uninterrupted operation of the plant. Sites with access to ample water resources or the ability to establish water-saving technologies are preferred.
A stable and cost-effective energy supply is essential for cement production. The site should have access to a reliable source of electricity and fuel, and it should also consider the potential for renewable energy sources to reduce long-term operational costs and environmental impact.
Geological and geotechnical assessments are critical in site selection. The chosen site should be geologically stable and suitable for construction and mining activities. Soil and rock quality, as well as groundwater conditions, should be thoroughly evaluated.
Land acquisition and zoning approvals are often lengthy and complex processes. It&#;s essential to secure the necessary land and regulatory approvals before commencing construction. An appropriate zoning classification and compliance with local land-use regulations are fundamental.
The availability of a skilled and reliable workforce is essential for the long-term success of a cement plant. The site should be located near communities with a pool of potential employees who can meet the plant&#;s staffing needs.
Safety and security considerations are paramount for a cement plant, especially given the potentially hazardous nature of the industry. Sites should be evaluated for their vulnerability to natural disasters and potential security risks.
All in all, selecting the right site for a cement plant is a multifaceted process that involves balancing a range of technical, economic, and environmental considerations. A well-chosen site can contribute to the plant&#;s long-term success, operational efficiency, and sustainability, while a poor choice can result in inefficiencies, increased costs, and regulatory challenges. By carefully assessing and addressing each of the factors mentioned above, cement producers can make informed decisions and ensure the successful establishment and operation of their plants.
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® Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada,Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, To receive additional copies of this publication, please write tothe following address:
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Cement is produced at 17 locations across Canada. The industry is concentrated in Ontario and Quebec with 10 of the 17 plants operating in these two provinces. British Columbia and Alberta have three and two plants, respectively. Single plants operate in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Canadian cement clinker production capacity is about 14.1 million tonnes per year. In , clinker production totalled 12 million tonnes for a capacity use of 85 percent.
With more than ready-mixed and other plants across the country using Portland cement to make concrete, the industry employs some 22 000 people and generates more than $3 billion in annual sales. Almost one third of Canadian cement is exported.
The focus of this Guide is on energy used in the production of cement clinker; unlike finished cement, all plants produce clinker.
Most of the energy information in this report was provided by the Cement Association of Canada (formerly known as the Portland Cement Association of Canada). The Association captured much of the data from U.S. and Canadian Portland Cement Industry: Plant Information Summary for , the last year for which data are available.
The cement industry has long recognized that the cost of energy can be significant, varying between 25 percent and 35 percent of total direct costs. Consequently, the industry is continuously investigating and adopting more energy-efficient technologies to improve its profitability and competitiveness. In particular, plants have moved steadily away from less energy &#; efficient wet process kilns toward the more fuel-efficient dry process kilns. The number of wet process kilns in production declined by more than 50 percent between and . As of May , only two wet kilns were still operating in Canada.
The industry has achieved additional energy efficiency gains by using preheaters and precalciners. These technologies have helped the industry reduce its energy consumption per tonne of cement by 30 percent since the mid-s.
The following table summarizes typical average fuel consumption for three kiln technology types.
Typical Average Fuel Consumption of Three Kiln Technology Types Kiln Type Average Fuel Consumption (GJ/t) Wet Kilns 6.0 Dry Kilns--Single-Stage Preheater 4.5 Dry Kilns--Multi-Stage Preheater 3.6Source: Hodlerbank, . Present and Future Use of Energy in the Cement and Concrete Industries in Canada.
Three dry process kilns have also been shut down during the decade, but average kiln capacity has increased by 34 percent, further contributing to gains in energy efficiency.
The next table shows total energy use, total clinker production and energy use per tonne of clinker. In comparing the average for the first three years of the decade (, and ) with the average for the last three available data years (, and ) &#; thereby levelling fluctuations in capacity use &#; some interesting trends appear.
These energy efficiency gains reflect continued technology improvements (from wet process to dry process, including preheater/ precalciner additions), new installations and retrofits to increase average kiln capacity, and continuous improvement in general operating practices.
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Table 1. Clinker Production, Total and Average Per-Unit Energy Use, - Total Energy UseAs shown in the following two pie charts, the breakdown of primary fuel use by type has not changed dramatically during the s. In comparing the averages for the first three years of the decade to the averages for the - period, it is evident that coal and natural gas have held their place as the dominant fuels for generating process heat in the industry.
Text version - Figure1Clinker Production Fuel Use - Average (pie chart). Coal 41%, Coke 3%, Petro Coke 12%, Natural Gas 27%, Heavy Fuel Oil 4%, Waste Fuels 2%, Electricity 11%.
Text version - Figure2Clinker Production Fuel Use - Average (pie chart). Coal 41%, Coke 1%, Petro Coke 13%, Natural Gas 22%, HFO 4%, Waste Fuels 7%, Electricity 11%.
However, the share for natural gas decreased from 27 percent to 22 percent. This five-percent decline was mirrored by a five-percent increase in the use of waste materials, including wood wastes, tires and solvents.
Figure 3 shows annual fuel consumption annually from to and as an average for the first and last three years of the time series by category. On closer inspection of the numbers behind these percentage shares, the following trends have been observed:
Annual Fuel Use by Type - with Three-Year Averages (bar chart). The X axis indicates each year, individually represented by a bar indicating the type of fuel used, in single year increments ranging from to . The last two bars are labeled as Average - and Average -. The Y axis indicates gigajoules per tonnes of clinker (GJ/T), ranging in single digit increments from 0 to 8.
: Fossil Fuels just under 5 GJ/T, Electricity approximately 5.5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly above 5.5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels approximately 5.5 GJ/T; Electricity slightly above 6 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly below 6.5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels just under 5 GJ/T; Electricity slightly above 5.5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly above 5.5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels approximately 4.5 GJ/T; Electricity slightly above 5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels just under 5.5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels slightly above 4 GJ/T; Electricity slightly below 5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly above 5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels slightly above 4 GJ/T; Electricity slightly below 5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels approximately 5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels approximately 4 GJ/T; Electricity approximately 4.75 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly below 5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels approximately 4 GJ/T; Electricity approximately 4.75 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly below 5 GJ/T
: Fossil Fuels slightly above 4.25 GJ/T; Electricity slightly below 5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly above 5 GJ/T
Average -: Fossil Fuels approximately 5.25 GJ/T; Electricity approximately 6 GJ/T, Waste Fuels slightly above 6 GJ/T
Average -: Fossil Fuels slightly above 4.25 GJ/T; Electricity slightly below 5 GJ/T, Waste Fuels approximately 5 GJ/T
The industry could reduce its dependence on fossil fuels even more if legislative conditions and consumer perceptions would allow increased use of waste fuels. Unfortunately, these major hurdles are not easily jumped.
Figure 4 helps cement plants compare their own energy use to that of other plants in the industry. The chart ranks individual plants from the most efficient (1) to the least efficient (15). To position your plant among the others in the industry, refer to your completed copy of the "Canadian Labour and Energy Input Survey" for , or complete the table on page 10 with your most recent information to calculate your plant's per-unit energy use.
Text version - Figure4The Energy Use Plant Ranking (bar chart) helps cement plants compare their own energy use to that of other plants in the industry.
Along the X axis, the chart ranks individual plants from the most efficient (1) to the least efficient (15) in terms of the number of gigajoules used per tonnes of clinker (GJ/T), ranging in single digit increments from 0 to 8 along the Y axis.
Plant 1 = slightly above 3.5 GJ/T
Plant 2 = just below 4 GJ/T
Plant 3 = approximately 4 GJ/T
Plant 4 = just above 4 GJ/T
Plant 5 = just above 4 GJ/T
Plant 6 = just above 4 GJ/T
Plant 7 = just above 4 GT/J
Plant 8 = just below 4.5 GJ/T
Plant 9 = just above 4 GT/J
Plant 10 = just above 4 GT/J
Plant 11 = just above 4 GT/J
Plant 12 = just above 5 GT/J
Plant 13 = approximately 5.5 GT/J
Plant 14 = just below 5.5. GT/J
Plant 15 = just below 7 GT/J
The energy use among the 15 plants depicted in Figure 4 varies from a low of 3.68 to a high of 6.87 gigajoules per tonne of clinker. The average energy use for the 15 plants is 4.69 GJ/t. But the average for the four most energy-efficient plants (upper quartile) is only 4 GJ/t. In other words, there is a 15-percent difference between the most efficient mills and the industry average. This significant difference suggests that many plants have ample room for energy efficiency improvements.
There are always extenuating circumstances and specific explanations for the differences in energy use among individual companies and plants &#; differences in raw resources, fuel types, kiln capacity, technology and general operating practices, for example. Improving energy use, however, is important to the industry and society, and it deserves more attention.
The cement sector has set a target for energy intensity improvement of 0.7 percent per year through the year (Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation/Cement Association of Canada). Although the industry is well on its way to surpassing this goal, further improvements are possible and required as the industry addresses its role and ongoing response to the evolving realities of climate change.
The member companies of the Cement Association of Canada have adopted a set of environmental principles, which re-dedicates the industry to pursuing energy efficiency improvements. Following are some recent examples of this continued dedication to energy efficiency improvement.
Previous editions of the Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation annual report list many more examples of recent actions by industry members to conserve energy. There are also various government programs available to companies &#; often at little or no expense &#; to help identify and implement energy efficiency improvements. For example, Natural Resources Canada's Office of Energy Efficiency offers programs ranging from workshops on energy monitoring and tracking to on-site energy audits.
1. Determine your plant's energy use per tonne of clinker, by fuel type. (See the table below for the calculation method if these data are not readily available.)
2. Compare your plant's per-tonne energy use with that of other cement plants (See Figure 4).
3 a. If your plant energy use is equal to or better than the top four plants (upper quartile) you are an energy use innovator. Keep it up by maintaining your energy monitoring program and excellent operating practices.
3 b. If your plant energy use ranks between 5 and 11 on the graph, your plant needs to invest more effort in determining how to improve energy use.
3 c. If your plant energy use ranks between 12 and 15, your plant is not as energy efficient as your competitors' plants, for many possible reasons. For example, raw resources with a high moisture content, small capacity kilns and older technology will all have a negative impact on your energy efficiency. It is likely that such structural difficulties will be addressed only as your plant modernizes its facilities and processes. In the meantime, you should direct your efforts toward maintaining &#; and strengthening, where necessary &#; your plant's operating practices to avoid any unnecessary energy waste.
To calculate your plant's energy use per tonne of clinker and determine its relative position as compared to the other plants in the cement industry, complete the following table for your last full year of operation.
Calculating Your Plant's Energy Use (Gigajoules per Tonne of Clinker)
Fuel Type Qty Use for Year Conversion Factor Total GJ for the Year Gasoline (000 L) x 33.6 GJ/ L Middle Distillates (000 L) x 36.8 GJ/ L Coal (tonnes) x 28.066 GJ/t Residual Oil (tonnes) x 40.387 GJ/t Natural Gas (000 m3) x 34.313 GJ/ m3 Petroleum Coke (tonnes) x 32.701 GJ/t LPG (000s of L) x 22.851 GJ/ L Electricity (mWh) x 3.598 GJ/mWh Waste Oil (000 L) x 34.0 GJ/ L Waste Solvents (t) x 26.0 GJ/t Waste--Tire-Derived (t) x 27.0 GJ/t Other Specified by respondent GRAND TOTAL Annual ClinkerOnce you have completed the table and determined annual gross energy use in gigajoules, divide it by the tonnes of clinker produced in the year to yield gigajoules per tonne of clinker. You are now ready to compare your energy use with others in the industry as depicted in Figure 4.
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